Archive for the ‘Shallum’ Tag
Above: Jehoiakim Burns the Word of God
Image in the Public Domain
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READING JEREMIAH, PART XVI
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Jeremiah 36:1-32
Jeremiah 45:1-5
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When I taught history survey courses in colleges and universities, I told my students:
Keep your facts straight and your chronology in order.
The Book of Jeremiah does not always keep its facts straight. I have noted some examples of this already in this series of posts. I point to two examples in this post. I have more examples to point out when I get to them. I am a serious student of history; I stand by the objective reality that x either happened or did not. I make no apology for this.
The Book of Jeremiah does not keep its chronology straight, either.
- Zedekiah was the last King of Judah. He reigned from 597 to 586 B.C.E. He was the named monarch in Jeremiah 24, 27, 28, 32, 37, and 38.
- Jehoiakim, nephew of Zedekiah, reigned as the King of Judah from 608 to 598 B.C.E. Jehoiakim was the named monarch in Chapters 25, 26 (completing the story in 7 and 8, by the way), 35, and 45. The events of Chapter 35 transpired after those of Chapter 36.
- Jeremiah 39 and 52 cover the Fall of Jerusalem in 586 B.C.E. Off-screen, so to speak, the city fell between Chapters 32 and 33, and before 10:23-25.
The Book of Jeremiah is messing with my head. The beginning should come before the middle, which should precede the end. Linear story-telling has its virtues.
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In 608 B.C.E., Eliakim ben Josiah came to the throne of Judah as Jehoiakim, succeeding a deposed and exiled brother, Jehoahaz ben Josiah (r. 609 B.C.E.). Both brothers were vassals of Pharoah Neco II (reigned 610-595 B.C.E.). During the reign of Jehoiakim, the Chaldean/Neo-Babylonian Empire replaced Egypt as the power to which Judah’s monarch served as a vassal. Jehoiakim was also a tyrant who had prophets who spoke inconvenient truths arrested and executed circa 608 B.C.E. Intervention spared the life of Jeremiah from Jehoiakim’s wrath (Jeremiah 26). Yet, circa 608 B.C.E., Uriah ben Shemaiah died for saying what Jeremiah proclaimed (Jeremiah 26).
The events of Jeremiah 36 occurred in 605 B.C.E. That year, Jeremiah had no access to the Temple. Therefore, he sent his scribe, Baruch ben Neriah, in his place. The scribe used the words of divine judgment and the invitation to repent. These words met with a chilly reception. King Jehoiakim burned the scroll.
The LORD now says of Jehoiakim, king of Judah: No descendant of his shall sit on David’s throne; his corpse shall be thrown out, exposed to heat by day, frost by night. I will punish him and his descendants for their wickedness; upon them, the inhabitants of Jerusalem, and the people of Judah I will bring all the evil threats to which they will not listen.
–Jeremiah 36:30-31, The New American Bible–Revised Edition (2011)
King Jehoiakim’s reign ended in 598 B.C.E.
- He may have died peacefully in his sleep, in his palace (2 Kings 24:6). “He rested with his forefathers” usually indicated a peaceful death.
- He may have become a prisoner in the Chaldean/Neo-Babylonian Empire (2 Chronicles 36:6; 1 Esdras 1:40).
- He may have died in battle, outside the walls of Jerusalem. His corpse may have remained unburied, a sign of disgrace and disrespect (Jeremiah 22:19; 36:30-31).
Despite the prophecy, a son of Jehoiakim succeeded him. King Jehoiachin/Jeconiah/Coniah reigned for about three months in 597 B.C.E. before becoming a prisoner in the Chaldean/Neo-Babylonian Empire (2 Kings 24:8-17; 2 Kings 25:27-30; 2 Chronicles 36:9-10; 1 Esdras 1:43-46).
Above: Baruch Writing Jeremiah’s Prophecies
Image in the Public Domain
Turning to Jeremiah 45, we remain in 605 B.C.E., according to the text.
God commanded Jeremiah to tell Baruch ben Neriah:
Thus said the LORD: I am going to overthrow what I have built, and uproot what I have planted–this applies to the whole land. And do you expect great things for yourself? Don’t expect them. For I am going to bring disaster upon all flesh–declares the LORD–but I will at least grant your life in all the places where you may go.
–Jeremiah 45:4-5, TANAKH: The Holy Scriptures (1985)
This work exacted a heavy toll on Jeremiah and his scribe. The divine promise of not getting killed in the line of duty applied to the prophet, also (Jeremiah 1:19). Ebed-melech, another ally of Jeremiah, had a divine guarantee of his life, too (Jeremiah 39:18). Despite this divine promise, being Jeremiah or one of his allies was risky.
One may not want to hear God say to one:
And do you expect great things for yourself? Don’t expect them.
Baruch, of course, went to Egypt with Jeremiah (43:6).
Some interpretive difficulties arise in Jeremiah 45.
- The text dates the prophecy to 605 B.C.E.
- Yet Chapter 45 follows exile in Egypt for Jeremiah and Baruch, and flows thematically from Chapter 44.
- Nevertheless, as I keep repeating, chronology is not the organizing principle in the Book of Jeremiah. Structurally, the Book of Jeremiah reminds me of certain movies by Atom Egoyan, the acclaimed Canadian movie director. Egoyan does not favor linear story-telling; he often has three timeframes running in his movies, and cuts from one timeframe to another one periodically. For proper understanding of The Sweet Hereafter (1997) and Ararat (2002), for example, one needs to watch at least three times.
- The translation of the end of 45:5 varies. TANAKH: The Holy Scriptures (1985) goes one way, with, “…but I will, at least, grant you your life.” The New American Bible–Revised Edition (2011) goes another way, with, “…but I will grant you your life as spoils of war….”
And do you expect great things for yourself? Don’t expect them.
God’s reward to Jeremiah, Baruch, and Ebed-melech was survival in a terrifying time.
That does not seem like much of a reward, does it? Yet, as St. Teresa of Calcutta said, God calls people to be faithful, not successful. This is a difficult teaching. I struggle with it. Maybe you do, too, O reader. I read that Jeremiah and Baruch did.
By human standards, Jeremiah was a failure. He was on the outs with authorities. His message convinced few people. He died in involuntary exile in a land where he had warned people not to go. And, by human standards, Jeremiah dragged Baruch down with him.
Yet, thousands of years later, faithful Jews and Christians utter the names of Jeremiah and Baruch with respect. Many Jews and Christians still study and read the Book of Jeremiah. The faithful legacy of Jeremiah and Baruch endures.
By that standard, Jeremiah and Baruch succeeded.
KENNETH RANDOLPH TAYLOR
JUNE 12, 2021 COMMON ERA
THE FEAST OF EDWIN PAXTON HOOD, ENGLISH CONGREGATIONALIST MINISTER, PHILANTHROPIST, AND HYMN WRITER
THE FEAST OF CHRISTIAN DAVID JAESCHKE, GERMAN MORAVIAN ORGANIST AND COMPOSER; AND HIS GRANDSON, HENRI MARC HERMANN VOLDEMAR VOULLAIRE, MORAVIAN COMPOSER AND MINISTER
THE FEAST OF ENMEGAHBOWH, EPISCOPAL PRIEST AND MISSIONARY TO THE OJIBWA NATION
THE FEAST OF JOSEPH DACRE CARLYLE, ANGLICAN PRIEST AND HYMN WRITER
THE FEAST OF MILTON SMITH LITTLEFIELD, JR., U.S. PRESBYTERIAN AND CONGREGATIONALIST MINISTER, HYMN WRITER, AND HYMNAL EDITOR
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Above: Jeremiah Tells the King That Jerusalem Shall Be Taken
Image in the Public Domain
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READING JEREMIAH, PART XIII
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Jeremiah 21:1-22:30
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For God’s sake, let us sit upon the ground,
and tell sad stories of the death of kings….
–William Shakespeare, Richard II, Act 3, Scene 2
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Jeremiah 21-25 consists of oracles in the last years of Jerusalem. Zedekiah (born Mattaniah) in the regnant monarch named in 21:1. The Jewish Study Bible, Second Edition (2014), lists his reign as having spanned 597-586 B.C.E. Outside of the Book of Jeremiah, one can read about King Zedekiah in 2 Kings 24:18-25:26; 2 Chronicles 36:11-21; and 1 Esdras 1:47-58.
Passhur the priest (21:1) was a different person than Passhur the priest (20:1), just as Zephaniah the priest (21:1) was a different person than Zephaniah the prophet (Zephaniah 1-3).
The theme of divine retribution in exchange for rampant, persistent, and systemic social injustice recurs.
There was bad news all around.
- Jerusalem was fall to the Chaldean/Neo-Babylonian Empire in 586 B.C.E.
- King Zedekiah (r. 597-586 B.C.E.) would suffer an ignominious fate.
- King Jehohaz/Jeconiah/Shallum (r. 609 B.C.E.; 2 Kings 23:31-35; 2 Chronicles 36:1-4; 1 Esdras 1:34-38), would die in exile in Egypt.
- King Jehoiakim (r. 608-598 B.C.E.; 2 Kings 23:36-24:7; 2 Chronicles 36:5-8; 1 Esdras 1:39-42) either died peacefully in his palace (2 Kings 24:6), became a captive in Babylon (2 Chronicles 36:5-8; 1 Esdras 1:40), or died outside the walls of Jerusalem in 598 B.C.E. and received no burial (Jeremiah 22:19; 36:30-31).
- King Jehoiachin/Jeconiah/Coniah (r. 597 B.C.E.; 2 Kings 24:8-17; 2 Kings 25:27-30; 2 Chronicles 36:9-10; 1 Esdras 1:43-46) would become a prisoner in Babylon, too.
I detect odd editing, without regard to chronology. Follow my reasoning, O reader:
- Zedekiah was the last King of Judah. Material concerning him establishes the present tense at the beginning of Chapter 21.
- The material concerning Jehoahaz/Jeconiah/Shallum would have been contemporary to the Zedekiah material.
- Yet the material concerning Jehoiakim comes from during his reign.
- Likewise, the material concerning Jehoiachin/Jeconiah/Coniah comes from during his reign.
The divine condemnations of rulers who did not try to govern righteously remain relevant, sadly.
KENNETH RANDOLPH TAYLOR
JUNE 11, 2021 COMMON ERA
THE FEAST OF SAINT BARNABAS THE APOSTLE, COWORKER OF SAINT PAUL THE APOSTLE
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Above: Statue of Jeremiah, Salisbury Cathedral
Image in the Public Domain
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READING JEREMIAH, PART V
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Jeremiah 7:1-8:3
Jeremiah 26:1-24
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Jeremiah 7:1-20:18 consists of oracles primarily from the reign (608-598 B.C.E.) of Jehoiakim (born Eliakim) of Judah. For more about Jehoiakim, read 2 Kings 23:36-24:7; 2 Chronicles 36:5-8; 1 Esdras 1:39-42.
The Assyrian Empire had consumed the (northern) Kingdom of Israel in 722 B.C.E. then the Kingdom of Aram in 720 B.C.E. In 612 B.C.E., the Chaldean/Neo-Babylonian Empire had conquered the Assyrian Empire. In 608 B.C.E., Judah was struck between two powerful neighbors–Egypt and Babylonia, themselves enemies. After the death of King Josiah (r. 640-609 B.C.E.) in combat against Pharaoh Neco II of Egypt (r. 610-595 B.C.E.), Judah had become a vassal state of Egypt. Neco II had appointed the next King of Judah, Jehoahaz, also known as Jeconiah and Shallum (2 Kings 23:31-35; 2 Chronicles 36:1-4; 1 Esdras 1:34-38). Jehoahaz had reigned for about three months in 609 B.C.E. before Neco II had replaced him with another son of Josiah and taken him into captivity in Egypt. Neco II had also appointed Eliakim and changed his name to Jehoiakim in 608 B.C.E. He served as an Egyptian vassal until 605 B.C.E., when he became a Chaldean/Neo-Babylonian vassal.
Jeremiah spent most of his prophetic career speaking difficult truths to a nation under foreign domination. This context was extremely politically dangerous.
This sermon is thematically consistent with Hosea 6:4-6; Micah 3:9-12; and Amos 2:4-6. It is also thematically consistent with many other passages of Hebrew scripture. The link between idolatry and social injustice (especially economic injustice) is clear. Sacred rituals, even those the Law of Moses mandates, are not talismans. The joining of lived collective piety and justice on one hand and sacred ritual on the other hand is imperative. The combination of social injustice and sacred ritual makes a mockery of sacred ritual.
Mend your ways and your actions,
Jeremiah preached at the Temple. Then he unpacked that statement:
…if you execute justice between one man and another; if you do not oppress the stranger, the orphan, and the widow; if you do not shed the blood of the innocent in this place; if you do not follow other gods, to your own hurt–then only will I [YHWH] let you dwell in this place, in the land that I gave to your fathers for all time. See, you are relying on illusions that are of no avail….
–Jeremiah 7:5-8, TANAKH: The Holy Scriptures (1985)
Pay attention to 7:11, O reader:
Do you consider this House, which bears My name, to be a den of thieves? As for Me, I have been watching–declares the LORD.
—TANAKH: The Holy Scriptures (1985)
This is an allusion in Jesus’s mouth during the Temple Incident/the Cleansing of the Temple in Matthew 21:13; Mark 11:17; and Luke 19:46. Notice that Jeremiah predicted the destruction of the First Temple.
Chronology is not the organizing principle in the Book of Jeremiah. The Temple Sermon of Jeremiah is a case in point. We return to it and read of its aftermath in Jeremiah 26:1-24.
Idols abound. They may be tangible or intangible. If an activity, idea, or object functions as an idol for someone, it is an idol for that person. Money is one of the more common idols. Greed contributes greatly to economic injustice, and corruption is one of the major causes of institutionalized poverty. Obliviousness to participation in the violation of God’s moral commandments, including mutuality, will not shield us from the consequences of those sins any more than keeping sacred rituals will do so.
Circa 608 B.C.E. God was still holding out the possibility of repentance, prompting the cancellation of divine punishment, according to Jeremiah 26:3. This contradicts other passages from the Book of Jeremiah and other Hebrew prophetic books composed or begun prior to the Book of Jeremiah. Perhaps one reason for the contradiction is the addition of later material to the early Hebrew prophetic books, as late as the Babylonian Exile. I suppose that maintaining the hard line of the time for repentance having passed was difficult to maintain after the Fall of Babylon (539 B.C.E.).
The priests and prophets said to all the people, “This man deserves the death penalty, for he has prophesied against this city, as you yourselves have heard.
–Jeremiah 26:11, TANAKH: The Holy Scriptures (1985)
Jeremiah prophesied against a government and a population under foreign domination. There was no separation of religion and state either. The prophet worked in a dangerous milieu.
Jeremiah had allies, though. Some cited the example of Micah, who had issued a dire prophesy (Micah 3:12) and had not received a death sentence. Fortunately for Jeremiah, the court’s sentence remained unfulfilled. Ahikam, a high-ranking royal official (2 Kings 22:12), saved him. Ahikam was also the father of Gedaliah, the assassinated governor of Judah after the Fall of Jerusalem (Jeremiah 40:1-41:18).
Uriah ben Shemiah, from Kiriath-jearim, was not as fortunate as Jeremiah was. Uriah, also prophesying in the name of YHWH, said what Jeremiah proclaimed. Uriah fled to Egypt for safety because King Jehoiakim wanted him dead. Royal agents found Uriah in Egypt and returned him to Judah, to die.
One may legitimately wonder why God protected Jeremiah from threats to his life yet did not spare faithful Uriah ben Shemaiah.
KENNETH RANDOLPH TAYLOR
JUNE 7, 2021 COMMON ERA
THE FEAST OF SAINT MATTHEW TALBOT, RECOVERING ALCOHOLIC IN DUBLIN, IRELAND
THE FEAST OF SAINT ANTHONY MARY GIANELLI, FOUNDER OF THE MISSIONARIES OF SAINT ALPHONSUS
THE FEAST OF FREDERICK LUCIAN HOSMER, U.S. UNITARIAN HYMN WRITER
THE FEAST OF HUBERT LAFAYETTE SONE AND HIS WIFE, KATIE HELEN JACKSON SONE, U.S. METHODIST MISSIONARIES AND HUMANITARIANS IN CHNA, SINGAPORE, AND MALAYSIA
THE FEAST OF SEATTLE, FIRST NATIONS CHIEF, WAR LEADER, AND DIPLOMAT
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Above: Jeremiah
Image in the Public Domain
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READING JEREMIAH, PART I
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Jeremiah 1:1-3
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The first three verses of the Book of Jeremiah identify the prophet, his father, the prophet’s hometown, and the timeframe of his prophetic ministry.
Jeremiah (“YHWH will exalt”) ben Hilkiah hailed from Anathoth, about three and a half miles northeast of Jerusalem. The father, Hilkiah, was a priest. Hilkiah and Jeremiah were outside of the priestly establishment in Jerusalem. Therefore, this Hilkiah was not the high priest Hilkiah (2 Kings 22:3-23:37) who found the scroll of Deuteronomy in the Temple, brought that scroll to King Josiah (r. 640-609 B.C.E.), and participated in Josiah’s religious reformation.
Hailing from Anathoth was significant. Anathoth was one of the cities assigned to Levitical priests in Joshua 21:18. After the death of King David, King Solomon had exiled the priest Abiathar (1 Samuel 22:20-22; 1 Samuel 23:6, 9; 1 Samuel 30:7; 2 Samuel 8:17; 2 Samuel 15:24, 27, 29, 35; 2 Samuel 17:15; 2 Samuel 19:11; 2 Samuel 20:25; 1 Kings 1:7, 19, 25, 42; 1 Kings 2:35; 1 Kings 4:4; 1 Chronicles 15:11; 1 Chronicles 18:16; 1 Chronicles 24:6; 1 Chronicles 27:34; Mark 2:26) to Anathoth for supporting Adonijah in the struggle for succession (1 Kings 2:26-27). Jeremiah, therefore, was also a member of a priestly family. He understood the ancient traditions of Israel, as well as the foundational character of the covenant in the life of Israel.
The superscription also defines the period during which Jeremiah prophesied: from the thirteenth year (627 B.C.E.) of the reign (640-609 B.C.E.) of King Josiah of Judah through “the eleventh year of King Zedekiah,” “when Jerusalem went into exile in the fifth month” (586 B.C.E.). We read in Chapters 39-44 that Jeremiah prophesied after the Fall of Jerusalem, too. The list of kings names Josiah, Jehoiakim, and Zedekiah. That list omits Jehoahaz/Jeconiah/Shallum and Jehoiachin/Jeconiah/Coniah. Yet, as the germane note in The Jewish Study Bible, Second Edition (2014), points out, few of the prophecies in the Book of Jeremiah date to the reign of King Josiah.
Jeremiah prophesied during a turbulent and difficult period of decline–mostly after the fall of the Assyrian Empire (612 B.C.E. and before the Fall of Jerusalem (586 B.C.E.). In the wake of King Josiah’s death, Judah had become a vassal state of Egypt. Pharaoh Neco II had chosen the next two Kings of Judah. Jehoahaz/Jeconiah/Shallum (2 Kings 23:31-35; 2 Chronicles 36:1-4; 1 Esdras 1:34-38) had reigned for about three months before becoming a prisoner in Egypt. Then Neco II had appointed Eliakim and renamed him Jehoiakim (r. 608-598 B.C.E.; 2 Kings 23:36-24:7; 2 Chronicles 36:5-8; 1 Esdras 1:39-42). Jehoiakim was always a vassal while King of Judah. After being the vassal of Neco II of Egypt for about three years, he became a vassal of the Chaldean/Neo-Babylonian Empire in 605 B.C.E. He died a prisoner in that empire.
Two more Kings of Judah reigned; both were vassals of the Chaldean/Neo-Babylonian Empire. Jehoiachin/Jeconiah/Coniah (2 Kings 24:8-17; 2 Kings 25:27-30; 2 Chronicles 36:9-10; 1 Esdras 1:43-46) reigned for about three months before going into exile in that empire. The last King of Judah was Zedekiah, born Mattaniah (2 Kings 24:18-25:26; 2 Chronicles 36:11-21; 1 Esdras 1:47-58). He reigned from 597 to 586 B.C.E. The last events he saw before Chaldean soldiers blinded him were the executions of his sons.
The Book of Jeremiah is one of the longest books in the Hebrew Bible; it contains 52 chapters. The final draft is the product of augmentation and editing subsequent to the time of Jeremiah himself. In fact, Jeremiah 52 is mostly verbatim from 2 Kings 24:18-25:30. Also Jeremiah 52:4-16 occur also in Jeremiah 39:1-2, 4-10. Chronology is not the organizing principle of material in the Book of Jeremiah; jumping around the timeline is commonplace. For example, the Fall of Jerusalem (586 B.C.E.) occurs between Chapters 32 and 33, as well as in Chapters 39 and 52. Some ancient copies are longer than other ancient copies. None of the subsequent augmentation and editing, complete with some material being absent from certain ancient copies of the book surprises me, based on my reading about the development of certain Biblical texts. I do not pretend that divinely-inspired authors were mere secretaries for God.
Rabbi Abraham J. Heschel made a germane and wonderful point in The Prophets, Volume I (1962), viii:
The prophet is a person, not a microphone. He is endowed with a mission, with the power of a word not his own that accounts for his greatness–but also with temperament, concern, character, and individuality. As there was no resisting the impact of divine inspiration, so at times there was no resisting the vortex of his own temperament. The word of God reverberated in the voice of man.
The prophet’s task is to convey a divine view, yet as a person he is a point of view. He speaks from the perspective of God as perceived from the perspective of his own situation. We must seek to understand not only the views he expounded but also the attitudes he embodied: his own position, feeling response–not only what he said but also what he lived; the private, the intimate dimension of the word, the subjective side of the message.
Those paragraphs applied to all the Hebrew prophets. They applied to Jeremiah with greater poignancy than to the others, though.
I invite you, O reader, to remain with me as I blog my way through the book of the “weeping prophet.”
KENNETH RANDOLPH TAYLOR
JUNE 6, 2021 COMMON ERA
PROPER 5: THE SECOND SUNDAY AFTER PENTECOST, YEAR B
THE FEAST OF FRANKLIN CLARK FRY, PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA AND THE LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA
THE FEAST OF SAINT CLAUDE OF BESANÇON, ROMAN CATHOLIC PRIEST, MONK, ABBOT, AND BISHOP
THE FEAST OF HENRY JAMES BUCKOLL, AUTHOR AND TRANSLATOR OF HYMNS
THE FEAST OF JOHANN FRIEDRICH HERTZOG, GERMAN LUTHERAN HYMN WRITER
THE FEAST OF WILLIAM KETHE, PRESBYTERIAN HYMN WRITER
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Above: Icon of Habakkuk
Image in the Public Domain
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READING HABAKKUK, PART I
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Habakkuk 1:1
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The situation for Judah had become worse since the days of the prophet Nahum, shortly before the Fall of Nineveh (612 B.C.E.). King Josiah of Judah (r. 640-609 B.C.E.; 2 Kings 22:1-23:30; 2 Chronicles 34:1-35:27; 1 Esdras 1:1-33; Ecclesiasticus/Sirach 49:1-6) had died in combat against Pharaoh Neco II (r. 610-595 B.C.E.). The Egyptian leader had sought to establish power in Syria; Judah was between Egypt and Syria. The Chaldean/Neo-Babylonian Empire had terminated Neco II’s plans for Syria.
In the wake of King Josiah’s death, Judah had become a vassal state of Egypt. Pharaoh Neco II had chosen the next two Kings of Judah. Jehoahaz/Jeconiah/Shallum (2 Kings 23:31-35; 2 Chronicles 36:1-4; 1 Esdras 1:34-38) had reigned for about three months before becoming a prisoner in Egypt. Then Neco II had appointed Eliakim and renamed him Jehoiakim (r. 608-598 B.C.E.; 2 Kings 23:36-24:7; 2 Chronicles 36:5-8; 1 Esdras 1:39-42). Jehoiakim was always a vassal while King of Judah. After being the vassal of Neco II of Egypt for about three years, he became a vassal of the Chaldean/Neo-Babylonian Empire in 605 B.C.E. He died a prisoner in that empire.
Two more Kings of Judah reigned; both were vassals of the Chaldean/Neo-Babylonian Empire. Jehoiachin/Jeconiah/Coniah (2 Kings 24:8-17; 2 Kings 25:27-30; 2 Chronicles 36:9-10; 1 Esdras 1:43-46) reigned for about three months before going into exile in that empire. The last King of Judah was Zedekiah, born Mattaniah (2 Kings 24:18-25:26; 2 Chronicles 36:11-21; 1 Esdras 1:47-58). He reigned from 597 to 586 B.C.E. The last events he saw before Chaldean soldiers blinded him were the executions of his sons.
The Book of Habakkuk exists within the context of three years–605, 598/597, and 586 B.C.E.–and two Chaldean/Neo-Babylonian invasions of Judah. The book, in its original form, dates to closer to 605 and 598/597 B.C.E. than 586 B.C.E.
The superscription tells us almost nothing about the prophet. “Habakkuk” derives from an Arabic word meaning “dwarf.” He may have been a cultic prophet. The superscription does not even reveal the name(s) of the King(s) of Judah when Habakkuk prophesied.
The Book of Habakkuk contains fifty-six verses in three chapters. The Revised Common Lectionary (RCL) gives short shrift to the book, assigning only eight verses once every third years. Habakkuk 1:1-4; 2:1-4 is one of two options for the Old Testament reading on Proper 26, Year C. The lectionary includes:
the righteous live by their faith
(2:4b), taken out of textual context.
I invite you, O reader, to join me as I read all of the Book of Habakkuk, in historical and textual context.
KENNETH RANDOLPH TAYLOR
JUNE 5, 2021 COMMON ERA
THE FEAST OF SAINT DOROTHEUS OF TYRE, BISHOP OF TYRE, AND MARTYR, CIRCA 362
THE FEAST OF BLISS WIANT, U.S. METHODIST MINISTER, MISSIONARY, MUSICIAN, MUSIC EDUCATOR, AND HYMN TRANSLATOR, ARRANGER, AND HARMONIZER; AND HIS WIFE, MILDRED ARTZ WIANT, U.S. METHODIST MISSIONARY, MUSICIAN, MUSIC EDUCATOR, AND HYMN TRANSLATOR
THE FEAST OF INI KOPURIA, FOUNDER OF THE MELANESIAN BROTHERHOOD
THE FEAST OF MAURICE BLONDEL, FRENCH ROMAN CATHOLIC PHILOSOPHER AND FORERUNNER OF THE SECOND VATICAN COUNCIL
THE FEAST OF ORLANDO GIBBONS, ANGLICAN ORGANIST AND COMPOSER; THE “ENGLISH PALESTRINA”
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Above: Map of the Assyrian Empire and Neighbors
Scanned from an Old Bible
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READING HOSEA, PART VII
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Hosea 9:1-17
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I am convinced that references to Egypt in the Book of Amos may date to the Judean editing of the text. History tells me that, in the days of the prophet Hosea, Aram, not Egypt, was the main rival to the Assyrian Empire. History also tells me that, when the (southern) Kingdom of Judah was waning, Egypt was the main rival to the Chaldean/Neo-Babylonian Empire, successor to and conqueror of the Assyrian Empire. I also recall 2 Kings 23:31f, in which the Pharaoh, having killed King Josiah of Judah (r. 640-609 B.C.E.) in battle, selected the next two Kings of Judah–Jehoahaz (a.k.a. Jeconiah and Shallum; reigned for about three months in 609 B.C.E.) and Jehoiakim (born Eliakim; reigned 608-598 B.C.E.). (See 2 Kings 23:31-24:7; 2 Chronicles 36:1-8; and 1 Esdras 1:34-42.) References to returning to Egypt make sense on a literal level after the beginning of the Babylonian Exile, given the events of Jeremiah 42:1-44:31. On a metaphorical level, “returning to Egypt” stands for abandoning freedom in God and returning to captivity, thereby reversing the Exodus from Egypt (Exodus 13:17-14:31).
As for eating unclean food in Assyria (9:3), just replace Assyria with Babylonia, and that statement applies to the late Judean reality, too. 2 Kings 24:1-25:30 tells of the fall of the (southern) Kingdom of Judah. That portion of scripture also tells us that the last three Kings of Judah were Chaldean/Neo-Babylonian vassals.
Editing the original version of the Book of Hosea to describe the plight of the (southern) Kingdom of Judah required little effort. For example, Hoshea (r. 732-723 B.C.E.), the last King of Israel, was a rebellious vassal of Assyria. His rebellion triggered the fall of Samaria (2 Kings 17). Likewise, King Zedekiah (born Mattaniah; reigned 597-586 B.C.E.) was a rebellious vassal of Babylonia. His rebellion triggered the fall of Jerusalem in 586 B.C.E. (2 Kings 24:18-25:26; 2 Chronicles 36:11-21; 1 Esdras 1:47-58)
A sense of divine sadness pervades Hosea 9:1-17. One can feel it as one reads God, filtered through Hosea and perhaps subsequent editors, asking:
Why did my people make such terrible, destructive choices?
The chapter concludes on a somber note:
My God rejects them,
Because they have not obeyed Him….
–Hosea 9:17a, TANAKH: The Holy Scriptures (1985)
Cultures, societies, and individuals have the choice to obey or to disobey the moral mandates from God. Well-intentioned people who seek to obey God may debate how to do so. The situation in the Book of Hosea, however, is that the debate does not take place. The Book of Hosea describes a society in which disregard for those moral mandates was endemic. Judgment for trying and failing to fulfill these moral mandates differs from judgment for not caring enough to try.
My late beloved was mentally ill. Immediately prior to the end of her life, I told her that I accepted that I had moral obligations to her, but that I did not know in the moment what they required me to do. I was attempting, in a terminal crisis, to behave morally. Perhaps I made the wrong choice. Maybe I committed a sin of omission by avoiding the difficult and proper course of action. Perhaps she would have done differently in a counterfactual scenario. But I proceeded from a morally correct assumption, at least.
I live in a conflicted state. I tell myself that I sinned by what I did not do, not what I did. On the other hand, I tell myself that I could, at best, have delayed, not prevented her death by means other than natural causes. I tell myself, too, that I had already delayed her death by means other than natural causes for years. I tell myself that I carry survivor’s guilt, and that God has forgiven me for all sins of commission and omission vis-à-vis my late beloved. I have yet to forgive myself, though.
I wonder what exiles from Israel and Judah felt as they began their captivity and that exile dragged on. I wonder how many of them “saw the light” and repented. I know that the Ten Lost Tribes (mostly) assimilated, and that their descendants spread out across the Old World, from Afghanistan to South Africa. Knowing this adds poignancy to Hosea 9:14b:
And they shall go wandering
Among the nations.
—TANAKH: The Holy Scriptures (1985)
We human beings condemn ourselves.
KENNETH RANDOLPH TAYLOR
MAY 17, 2021 COMMON ERA
THE FEAST OF THOMAS BRADBURY CHANDLER, ANGLICAN PRIEST; HIS SON-IN-LAW, JOHN HENRY HOBART, EPISCOPAL BISHOP OF NEW YORK; AND HIS GRANDSON, WILLIAM HOBART HARE, APOSTLE TO THE SIOUX AND EPISCOPAL MISSIONARY BISHOP OF NIOBRARA THEN SOUTH DAKOTA
THE FEAST OF SAINT CATERINA VOLPICELLI, FOUNDRESS OF THE SERVANTS OF THE SACRED HEART; SAINT LUDOVICO DA CASORIA, FOUNDER OF THE GRAY FRIARS OF CHARITY AND COFOUNDER OF THE GRAY SISTERS OF SAINT ELIZABETH; AND SAINT GIULIA SALZANO, FOUNDRESS OF THE CONGREGATION OF THE CATECHETICAL SISTERS OF THE SACRED HEART
THE FEAST OF CHARLES HAMILTON HOUSTON AND THURGOOD MARSHALL, ATTORNEYS AND CIVIL RIGHTS ACTIVISTS
THE FEAST OF DONALD COGGAN, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY
THE FEAST OF SAINT IVAN ZIATYK, POLISH UKRAINIAN GREEK CATHOLIC PRIEST AND MARTYR, 1952
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Above: Doves (Hosea 7:11)
Image in the Public Domain
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READING HOSEA, PART VI
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Hosea 6:7-8:14
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Understanding this reading in textual context requires backing up to at least Hosea 6:4. For a refresher, I refer you, O reader, to the previous post in this series.
Hosea 6:7-8:14 contains some references from a later period, after the Fall of Samaria in 722 B.C.E. These references to Judah (6:11, 8:14) relate to the text to the (southern) Kingdom of Judah when it was declining.
According to this and other prophetic texts, alliances with powerful and dubious neighbors constituted infidelity to and treason against God. The references to the Egyptians were odd, given that the (northern) Kingdom of Israel entered into alliances with Aram and Assyria. At the time of Hosea 1:1, the main regional conflict was Aram versus Assyria. However, Judah did become a vassal of Egypt (2 Kings 23:31f).
That matter aside, divine chastisement, designed to bring about repentance, had not done so. Therefore, the time for punishment had arrived.
Hosea 7:3-7 makes sense if one considers royal succession in the (northern) Kingdom of Israel during the final quarter-century of the that realm:
- Jeroboam II (r. 788-747 B.C.E.) had died. (See 2 Kings 14:23-29.)
- Zechariah (r. 747 B.C.E.), his son, succeeded him. Zechariah reigned for about six months. (See 2 Kings 15:8-12.)
- Shallum (r. 747 B.C.E.) overthrew Zechariah then reigned for about a month. (See 2 Kings 15:13-16.)
- Menahem (r. 747-737 B.C.E.) overthrew Shallum. (See 2 Kings 15:17-22.)
- Pekahiah (r. 737-735 B.C.E.), his son, succeeded him. (See 2 Kings 15:23-26.)
- Pekah (r. 735-732 B.C.E.) overthrew Pekahiah. (See 2 Kings 15:27-31.)
- Hoshea (r. 732-722 B.C.E.) overthrew Pekah and became the last King of Israel. (See 2 Kings 17:1f.)
Two dynasties and four kings of Israel fell in twenty-five years. Six Kings of Israel came and went. Two kings without dynasties fell. The (northern) Kingdom of Israel did not endure.
They sow wind,
And they shall reap the whirlwind–
Standing stalks devoid of ears
And yielding no flour.
If they did yield any,
Strangers shall devour it.
–Hosea 8:7, TANAKH: The Holy Scriptures (1985)
Assyrians did devour it.
The two calves of Samaria, at Bethel and Dan (1 Kings 12:26-33), dated to the reign (928-907 B.C.E.) of Jeroboam I. (See 1 Kings 11:26-14:20.) King Jeroboam I, for political reasons, did not want any of his subjects making pilgrimages to the Temple in Jerusalem, the capital of the (southern) Kingdom of Judah. The two calves, therefore, were substitutes for the Temple in Jerusalem.
I reject your calf, Samaria!
I am furious with them!
Will they ever be capable of purity?
For it was Israel’s doing;
It was only made by a joiner,
It is not a god.
No, the calf of Samaria shall be
Reduced to splinters!
–Hosea 8:5-6, TANAKH: The Holy Scriptures (1985)
Hosea 8:1-14 may, in its final form, be the product of Judean editing of an extant text. One feasible interpretation of 8:3-6 is that all the kings of the (northern) Kingdom of Israel (from Jeroboam I to Hoshea) were as illegitimate as the golden calves at Bethel and Dan. One who has read of the northern monarchs may recognize the pattern of dynasties rising and falling. I hold open the possibility that the original version of the Book of Hosea included at least some of this material. The final version of 8:14, bearing the stamp of Judean editing, updated for a new (now ancient) context, provided no comfort.
Israel has ignored his Maker
And built temples
(And Judah has fortified many cities).
So I will set fire to his cities,
And it shall consume their fortresses.
—TANAKH: The Holy Scriptures (1985)
It happened twice, in 722 and 586 B.C.E.
KENNETH RANDOLPH TAYLOR
MAY 17, 2021 COMMON ERA
THE FEAST OF THOMAS BRADBURY CHANDLER, ANGLICAN PRIEST; HIS SON-IN-LAW, JOHN HENRY HOBART, EPISCOPAL BISHOP OF NEW YORK; AND HIS GRANDSON, WILLIAM HOBART HARE, APOSTLE TO THE SIOUX AND EPISCOPAL MISSIONARY BISHOP OF NIOBRARA THEN SOUTH DAKOTA
THE FEAST OF SAINT CATERINA VOLPICELLI, FOUNDRESS OF THE SERVANTS OF THE SACRED HEART; SAINT LUDOVICO DA CASORIA, FOUNDER OF THE GRAY FRIARS OF CHARITY AND COFOUNDER OF THE GRAY SISTERS OF SAINT ELIZABETH; AND SAINT GIULIA SALZANO, FOUNDRESS OF THE CONGREGATION OF THE CATECHETICAL SISTERS OF THE SACRED HEART
THE FEAST OF CHARLES HAMILTON HOUSTON AND THURGOOD MARSHALL, ATTORNEYS AND CIVIL RIGHTS ACTIVISTS
THE FEAST OF DONALD COGGAN, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY
THE FEAST OF SAINT IVAN ZIATYK, POLISH UKRAINIAN GREEK CATHOLIC PRIEST AND MARTYR, 1952
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Above: Hosea and Gomer
Image in the Public Domain
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READING HOSEA, PART II
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Hosea 1:2-2:1 (Anglican, Protestant, and Eastern Orthodox)
Hosea 1:2-2:3 (Jewish and Roman Catholic)
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When I began my preparation for writing this post, I read the text aloud. While doing so, I got theological whiplash. Late in the reading, I also detected evidence of subsequent, Judean editing of the text, as in 1:7 and 1:10-2:1/2:3. (I wrote about reasons for subsequent, Judean editing in the original text of the Book of Hosea in the previous post.)
Adultery and prostitution, in the Bible, are sometimes simply adultery and prostitution. On other occasions, they are not literal references, but metaphors for idolatry. And, on other occasions, they are both literal and metaphorical. Regarding Gomer, the third option is germane.
Idolatry was widespread in ancient Israel. Polytheism was ubiquitous in the ancient world, so monotheism was an outlying theological position. Canaanite religion was popular in ancient Israel, much to the consternation of God, God’s prophets, and pious priests. Pious priestly religion and folk religion were quite different from each other. The cult of Baal Peor, the Canaanite storm and fertility god, entailed shrine prostitution, to ensure continued fertility and productivity of the soil, officially. Gomer (“to complete,” literally) was probably one of these prostitutes.
A competing scholarly opinion in commentaries holds that Gomer was a different type of prostitute. Some books I consulted suggested that she may have resorted to prostitution out of economic necessity, that her alternatives may have been starvation and homelessness. These scholars write accurately that many women in patriarchal societies have found themselves in this predicament, and that, in Gomer’s society, women lacked property rights.
Gomer being a shrine prostitute fits the metaphor in the Book of Hosea better.
Metaphorically, God’s covenant with the Jews was a marriage. Worship of Baal Peor, therefore, constituted infidelity. God was, metaphorically, her husband, and the Jewish people were God’s wife.
The marriage of Hosea and Gomer dramatized the divine indictment of Israel. The prophet played the role of God, and Gomer took the role of Israel. The children of Hosea ben Beeri and Gomer bath Didlaim bore names that revealed God’s terse messages.
- The first son was Jezreel, literally “God sows.” Jezreel was a city (as in Joshua 15:56) and a valley (as in Judges 6:33). Apart from the Book of Hosea, this place name occurred in Joshua 15, 17, and 19; Judges 6; 1 Samuel 25, 27, 29, and 30; 2 Samuel 2, 3, and 4; 1 Kings 4, 18, and 21; 2 Kings 8, 9, and 10; 1 Chronicles 4; and 2 Chronicles 22. The city of Jezreel had a bloody past. There, for example, Queen Jezebel had plotted the murder of Naboth (1 Kings 21). And, when King Jehu founded the dynasty to which King Jeroboam II belonged, Jehu did so by assassinating the entire royal court at Jezreel. What had come around was coming around, God warned. In 747 B.C.E., King Zechariah, son of Jeroboam II, died after reigning for about six months. His life and the House of Jehu ended violently when King Shallum staged a palace coup. About a month later, King Shallum died in another palace coup (2 Kings 15:11-15). Hosea, by the way, disagreed with the perspective of 2 Kings 9-10, the author of which held that God had authorized Jehu’s revolution.
- Lo-ruhamah was the daughter of Hosea and Gomer. The daughter’s name meant “not accepted” and “not shown mercy.” (Poor girl!) God refused to accept or pardon the House of Israel.
- Lo-ammi was the second son. His name meant “not My people.” (Poor boy!) The House of Israel had ceased to be God’s people.
Pronouncements of divine judgment continued after 1:9. But first, in 1:10-2:1/2:1-3 (depending on versification), came an announcement of divine mercy. Those God had just condemned as not being His people would become the Children of the Living God, shown mercy and lovingly accepted. This passage may have been a subsequent insertion into the Book of Hosea.
The juxtaposition of material serves a valuable theological purpose. It reminds us that divine judgment and mercy exist in balance. Therefore, do not abandon all hope or presume on divine mercy; God both judges and forgives. I recognize this balance without knowing where judgment gives way to mercy, and mercy to judgment.
The marriage of Hosea and Gomer also dramatized God’s continued yearning for Israel. R. B. Y. Scott wrote:
Hosea speaks of judgment that cannot be averted by superficial professions of repentance; but he speaks more of love undefeated by evil. The final words remain with mercy.
—The Relevance of the Prophets, 2nd. ed. (1968), 80
History offers a complicating factor. John Adams, while defending the accused British soldiers charged in the so-called Boston Massacre, said,
Facts are stubborn things.
Consider the following stubborn facts, O reader:
- The Assyrian Empire absorbed the (northern) Kingdom of Israel in 722 B.C.E. A mass deportation followed. This was not the first mass deportation. A previous one had occured in 733 B.C.E., when that empire had claimed much of the territory of the (northern) Kingdom of Israel.
- Many refugees from the (northern) Kingdom of Israel fled south, to the Kingdom of Judah after these events. These refugees merged into the tribes of Judah and Simeon.
- Many other Israelites remained in their homeland. Many who did this intermarried with Assyrian colonists, producing the Samaritans.
- The Ten Lost Tribes assimilated. Their genetic and cultural heritage spread throughout the Old World, from Afghanistan to South Africa, over time.
- The two kingdoms did not reunited, contrary to Hosea 1:11/2:2.
Nevertheless, I like what R. B. Y. Scott wrote:
The final word remains with mercy.
I hope so.
KENNETH RANDOLPH TAYLOR
MAY 13, 2021 COMMON ERA
THE FEAST OF THE ASCENSION OF OUR LORD JESUS CHRIST
THE FEAST OF HENRI DOMINIQUE LACORDAIRE, FRENCH ROMAN CATHOLIC PRIEST, DOMINICAN, AND ADVOCATE FOR THE SEPARATION OF CHURCH AND STATE
THE FEAST OF FRANCES PERKINS, UNITED STATES SECRETARY OF LABOR
THE FEAST OF SAINT GEMMA OF GORIANO SICOLI, ITALIAN ROMAN CATHOLIC ANCHORESS
THE FEAST OF SAINT GLYCERIA OF HERACLEA, MARTYR, CIRCA 177
THE FEAST OF UNITA BLACKWELL, AFRICAN-AMERICAN CIVIL RIGHTS ACTIVIST
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Above: A Map of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah
Scanned from an Old Bible
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READING HOSEA, PART I
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Hosea 1:1
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This post begins an ambitious program of Bible study and blogging. I, having recently blogged my way through Daniel, Jonah, and Baruch at this weblog, turn to the other books of the Old Testament classified as prophetic. In the first stage, I am reading and blogging about Hosea, Amos, Micah, and First Isaiah, all of them contemporaries prior to the Babylonian Exile.
The prophet Hosea (“rescue”) ben Beeri lived and prophesied in the (northern) Kingdom of Israel. According to Hosea 1:1, Hosea prophesied during the reigns of the following monarchs:
- Azariah (Uzziah) of Judah (r. 785-733 B.C.E.); see 2 Kings 15:1-7 and 2 Chronicles 26;
- Jotham of Judah (r. 759-743 B.C.E.); see 2 Kings 15:32-38 and 2 Chronicles 27:1-9;
- Ahaz of Judah (r. 743/735-727-715 B.C.E.); see 2 Kings 16:1-20, 2 Chronicles 28:1-27, and Isaiah 7:1-8:15;
- Hezekiah of Judah (r. 727/715-698/687 B.C.E.); see 2 Kings 18:1-20:21, 2 Chronicles 29:1-32:33, Isaiah 38:1-39:8, and Ecclesiasticus/Sirach 48:17-22 and 49:14; and
- Jeroboam II of Israel (r. 788-747 B.C.E.), see 2 Kings 14:23-29.
The list of kings (with dates taken from The Jewish Study Bible, Second Edition, 2014) does not include any Israelite monarchs who succeeded Jeroboam II through the Fall of Samaria (722 B.C.E.) and were contemporary with King Ahaz of Judah and perhaps King Hezekiah of Judah. Also, this list prioritizes the Kings of Judah. If one is intellectually honest (as I try to be), the chronological problem is obvious: Ahaz and Hezekiah do not belong on the list of kings in Hosea 1:1. The Book of Hosea contains layers of composition and editing. Alteration of the original text seems to have begun perhaps as early as prior to the Babylonian Exile, in the (southern) Kingdom of Judah, and continued (probably) as late as the post-Exilic period. The chronological discrepancy in Hosea 1:1 is a minor matter. If I were a fundamentalist, it would trouble me, and I would attempt to reconcile the irreconcilable. Karen Armstrong tells us:
…fundamentalism is antihistorical….
—A History of God: The 4,000-Year Quest of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam (1993), xx
The NIV Study Bible (1985) pretends that there is no chronological discrepancy in Hosea 1:1. But I do not affirm either Biblical literalism or inerrancy, so I acknowledge and ponder the evidence of alteration of the original text of the Book of Hosea. Besides, salvation does not require willful ignorance or a frontal lobotomy. Besides, giving short shrift to one’s intellect in the name of piety dishonors the image of God in oneself.
The germane note in The Jewish Study Bible, Second Edition (2014) argues for the editing of the original text of the Book of Hosea during the final, declining period of the (southern) Kingdom of Judah:
From the Israelite perspective, the book is anchored in the last period of strength of the Northern Kingdom; from the Judahite perspective, it is anchored in a period in which Israel moves from a political position of strength to the beginning of its demise in the days of Hezekiah. This double perspective is no mistake, but a rhetorical clue for the reading of the book.
–1132
Gale A. Yee wrote:
The priority of Judean kings suggests a Judean editing. The phraseology and structure that this verse shares with other prophetic superscriptions indicates that it was part of a joint redaction of the prophetic books. This editing probably occurred during or after the Babylonian exile, when the latter prophets can be dated. Moreover, the phraseology is similar to the editing of 1 and 2 Kings, suggesting a deuteronomistic redaction. The superscription emphasizes that while the revelation was addressed to a particular prophet at a particular historical time, the book in its later, edited state articulates the revealed message of God. As God’s word through Hosea spoke to its original audience and to its later Judean audience, it continues to address us today.
—The New Interpreter’s Bible, Vol. 7 (1996), 217
The (united) Kingdom of Israel had divided in 928 B.C.E., early in the reign of King Rehoboam, son of King Solomon. The Davidic Dynasty, which had ruled the (united) Kingdom of Judah since 1005 B.C.E., governed the (southern) Kingdom of Judah, including the tribes of Judah and Simeon, until the Fall of Jerusalem (587 B.C.E.). In contrast, dynasties rose and fell in the (northern) Kingdom of Israel. King Jeroboam II (reigned 788-747) belonged to the House of Jehu, which had come to power in a bloody revolution in 842 B.C.E. Jeroboam II presided over a prosperous and militarily strong realm (2 Kings 14:23-29). Yet, just a quarter-century after his death, the former (northern) Kingdom of Israel fell to the Assyrian Empire. Those twenty-five years were politically tumultuous.
- King Zechariah succeeded his father, Jeroboam II, in 747 B.C.E., and reigned for about six months (2 Kings 15:8-12)
- King Shallum ended the House of Jehu, as well as the life and reign of King Zechariah via assassination in 747 B.C.E. Shallum reigned for about a month (2 Kings 15:13-16).
- King Menahem (r. 747-737 B.C.E.) came to power by having King Shallum assassinated (2 Kings 15:17-22).
- King Pekahiah (r. 737-735 B.C.E.), succeeded his father, King Menahem (2 Kings 15:23-26).
- King Pekah (r. 735-732 B.C.E.) came to power by having King Pekahiah assassinated (2 Kings 15:27-31).
- King Hoshea (r. 732-722 B.C.E.) came to power by having King Pekah assassinated. Assyrian King Sargon II (r. 722-705) finished what Shalmaneser V (r. 727-722) had started; Sargon II terminated Hoshea’s reign and the existence of the (northern) Kingdom of Israel (2 Kings 17:1-23).
A note in The New Interpreter’s Study Bible (2003) suggests:
Because Hosea condemned the house of Jehu, it may be that he fled Israel prior to the revolt [of 747 B.C.E.], continuing to speak from Judah.
That is possible.
God, speaking through Hosea, repeatedly warned the people of the (northern) Kingdom of Israel of the terrors they were about to experience and urged them to restore their covenant relationship with God. They did not renew that covenant relationship, to their detriment. Perhaps subsequent editors of the original text of the Book of Hosea amplified these themes, with the benefit of hindsight. But these editors did not invent them.
Repurposing and revising texts was sufficiently commonplace in Biblical times that finding evidence of it had ceased to surprise me. For example, some of the Psalms originated at one place and in one period yet went through stages of revision, to fit different contexts.
Dr. Yee’s final point provides my jumping-off point for my conclusion for this post:
…[God’s word] continues to address us today.
Here, “God’s word” refers to what God has said and says. God’s word is as current today as it was last year, a decade ago, a century ago, a thousand years ago, and in antiquity. God’s word, although ancient, remains fresh. Are we paying attention?
KENNETH RANDOLPH TAYLOR
MAY 12, 2021 COMMON ERA
THE FEAST OF SAINT GERMANUS I CONSTANTINOPLE, PATRIARCH OF CONSTANTINOPLE; AND DEFENDER OF ICONS
THE FEAST OF SAINT GREGORY OF OSTIA, ROMAN CATHOLIC ABBOT, CARDINAL, AND LEGATE; AND SAINT DOMINIC OF THE CAUSEWAY, ROMAN CATHOLIC HERMIT
THE FEAST OF PAUL MAZAKUTE, FIRST SIOUX EPISCOPAL PRIEST
THE FEAST OF ROGER SCHÜTZ, FOUNDER OF THE TAIZÉ COMMUNITY
THE FEAST OF SYLVESTER II, BISHOP OF ROME
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Above: King Jeroboam II of Israel
Image in the Public Domain
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READING 1-2 SAMUEL, 1 KINGS, 2 KINGS 1-21, 1 CHRONICLES, AND 2 CHRONICLES 1-33
PART XCVI
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2 Kings 14:23-29; 15:8-16
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Do not invite death by the error of your life,
nor bring on destruction by the works of your hands;
because God did not make death,
and he does not delight in the death of the living.
For he created all things that they might exist,
and the creatures of the world ware wholesome,
and there is no destructive poison in them;
and the dominion of Hades is not on earth.
For righteousness is immortal.
But ungodly men by their words and deeds summoned death;
considering him a friend, they pined away,
and they made a covenant with him,
because they are fit to belong to his party.
–Wisdom of Solomon 1:12-16, Revised Standard Version–Second Catholic Edition (2002)
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King Amaziah of Judah (Reigned 798-769 B.C.E.)
King Jeroboam II of Israel (Reigned 788-747 B.C.E.)
King Azariah/Uzziah of Judah (Reigned 785-733 B.C.E.)
King Zechariah of Israel (Reigned 747 B.C.E.)
King Shallum of Israel (Reigned 747 B.C.E.)
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The Kingdom of Israel seemed to be doing well during the reign of King Jeroboam II. The military was strong, the borders were secure, Assyria was not yet the threat it went on to become. The Kingdom of Israel was prosperous, but the uneven distribution of wealth meant that the relative few rich people owed their money and status to the exploitation of the impoverished masses. The devastating and timeless prophecies of Amos came from this time.
A quarter of a century after King Jeroboam II died, the Assyrians conquered Israel.
King Jeroboam II was the fourth of five monarchs of the House of Jehu. The fifth monarch, King Zechariah, reigned for about half a year before he died in a coup d’état. The next King of Israel, Shallum, reigned for about a month before he died in another coup d’êtat.
The accounts in 2 Kings 14 and 15 are brief. I suspect that the author chose not to dwell on these three kings.
For a fuller flavor of the time of Jeroboam II, read the Book of Amos. Its moral standards should alarm many people around the world today. After all, human nature is a constant. So is God.
KENNETH RANDOLPH TAYLOR
NOVEMBER 6, 2020 COMMON ERA
THE FEAST OF CHRISTIAN GREGOR, FATHER OF MORAVIAN CHURCH MUSIC
THE FEAST OF GIOVANNI GABRIELI AND HANS LEO HASSLER, COMPOSERS AND ORGANISTS; AND CLAUDIO MONTEVERDI AND HEINRICH SCHÜTZ, COMPOSERS AND MUSICIANS
THE FEAST OF HALFORD E. LUCCOCK, U.S. METHODIST MINISTER AND BIBLICAL SCHOLAR
THE FEAST OF SAINT MAGDELEINE OF JESUS, FOUNDRESS OF THE LITTLE SISTERS OF JESUS
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BLOGA THEOLOGICA 
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